The neuropeptide PACAP (Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide) has been extensively studied for its neuroprotective properties in neurodegenerative diseases, including Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Diabetic Retinopathy (DR). Mutations in the gene encoding Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) account for approximately in 20% of familial ALS cases. The pathological mechanisms underlying the toxicity induced by mutated SOD1 are still unknown. However, it has been hypothesized that oxidative stress (OS) has a crucial role in motor neuron degeneration in ALS patients. Moreover, it has been described that SOD1 mutation interferes with the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a protective key modulator against OS and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Using a hybrid motor neuron-like cell line (NSC-34) expressing human SOD1 G93A as an in vitro model of ALS, we investigated whether the protective effect of the PACAP peptide is mediated through ADNP activation. Our results showed that binding of PACAP to its receptor PAC1R prevents mutated motor neurons death under serum-deprived conditions by inducing ADNP expression via phospholipase C (PLC) activation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that PACAP/ADNP axis significantly attenuates ROS generation by promoting the translocation of the transcription factor Nrf2 involved in the antioxidant response. During DR progression, long lasting hyperglycemia induces metabolic changes in the retina, leading to the overexpression and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) from retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) cells, which form the outer blood-retinal barrier (oBRB), a specialized structure that regulates ions and metabolites flux between capillaries of choroid and retina layers. VEGF secretion from the basolateral compartment of RPE cells compromises barrier’s integrity and induces choroidal neovascularization. We hypothesized that PACAP prevents the damage to oBRB and control choroidal neovascularization through the induction of ADNP. Firstly, we demonstrated that ADNP is expressed in RPE cells of Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic animals. The involvement of PACAP-ADNP axis on oBRB integrity was evaluated through the measurement of trans-epithelial-electrical resistance and permeability assay performed on ARPE monolayer cells cultured in a conditioned medium, called CM2, containing known concentration of VEGF and by analyzing the expression of two tight junction forming proteins, Zonula Occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin. Furthermore, we have also demonstrated that PACAP-ADNP axis counteracted choroidal neovascularization promoted by VEGF. In conclusion, the studies presented in this thesis highlight the role of the PACAP-ADNP axis in neuroprotection against oxidative stress in ALS and preservation of the integrity of the external blood-retinal barrier (oBRB) during DR progression. Considering the limitations associated with the clinical application of these peptides, regarding their metabolic instability and short half-life, future studies should prioritize the identification and synthesis of novel agonists with a greater therapeutic efficacy.
ll neuropeptide PACAP (Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide) è stato ampiamente studiato per le sue proprietà neuroprotettive nelle malattie neurodegenerative, tra cui la Sclerosi Laterale Amiotrofica (SLA) e la Retinopatia Diabetica (RD). Le mutazioni nel gene che codifica per l’enzima superossido dismutasi Cu/Zn (SOD1) sono responsabili del 20% dei casi familiari di SLA. I meccanismi patologici sottostanti la tossicità indotta dalla mutazione SOD1 sono ancora sconosciuti. Tuttavia, è stato ipotizzato che lo stress ossidativo (OS) giochi un ruolo cruciale nella degenerazione dei motoneuroni. Inoltre, è stato descritto che la mutazione SOD1 interferisce con l’espressione del fattore nucleare legato all'eritroide 2-correlato al fattore 2 (Nrf2), un fattore chiave nella protezione contro lo stress ossidativo e la formazione delle specie reattive dell’ossigeno (ROS). Utilizzando una linea cellulare ibrida di motoneuroni (NSC-34) che esprime la forma umana wild-type o SOD1 mutata come modello in vitro di SLA, abbiamo investigato se l’effetto protettivo del peptide PACAP fosse mediato attraverso l’attivazione della proteina ADNP (Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein). I nostri risultati hanno mostrato che il PACAP legandosi al recettore PAC1 previene la morte dei motoneuroni mutati in condizioni di carenza sierica inducendo l’espressione di ADNP tramite l'attivazione della fosfolipasi C. Inoltre, abbiamo dimostrato che l'asse PACAP/ADNP attenua significativamente la formazione dei ROS promuovendo la traslocazione del fattore di trascrizione Nrf2 coinvolto nella risposta antiossidante. Durante la progressione della Retinopatia Diabetica (DR), l'iperglicemia prolungata induce cambiamenti metabolici nella retina, portando alla sovraespressione e secrezione del fattore di crescita endoteliale vascolare (VEGF) da parte delle cellule dell'epitelio pigmentato retinico (RPE), che formano la barriera emato-retinica esterna (oBRB), una struttura specializzata che regola il flusso di ioni e metaboliti tra i capillari della coroide e gli strati retinici. La secrezione di VEGF dal compartimento basolaterale delle cellule RPE compromette l'integrità della barriera e induce la neovascolarizzazione coroidea. Abbiamo ipotizzato che il peptide PACAP possa prevenire il danno alla oBRB attraverso l'induzione di ADNP. In primo luogo, abbiamo dimostrato che ADNP è espresso nelle cellule RPE di animali diabetici indotti da streptozotocina . Il coinvolgimento dell'asse PACAP-ADNP sull'integrità della barriera è stato valutato mediante la misurazione della resistenza elettrica trans-epiteliale e un saggio di permeabilità eseguito su monostrati di cellule ARPE coltivate in un mezzo condizionato, denominato CM2, contenente una concentrazione nota di VEGF, e analizzando l'espressione di due proteine che costituiscono le giunzioni strette, Zonula Occludens-1 (ZO-1) e occludina. Inoltre, abbiamo dimostrato che l'asse PACAP-ADNP ha contrastato la neovascolarizzazione coroidea promossa da VEGF. In conclusione, gli studi presentati nella tesi evidenziano il ruolo dell'asse PACAP-ADNP nella neuroprotezione contro lo stress ossidativo nella SLA e nella preservazione dell'integrità della oBRB durante la progressione della RD. Considerando le limitazioni associate all'applicazione clinica di questi peptidi, relative alla loro instabilità metabolica e breve emivita, studi futuri dovrebbero concentrarsi sull'identificazione e la sintesi di nuovi agonisti con una maggiore efficacia terapeutica
Role of PACAP-ADNP axis in neurodegenerative process / Magri', Benedetta Giuseppa. - (2025 Apr 14).
Role of PACAP-ADNP axis in neurodegenerative process
MAGRI', BENEDETTA GIUSEPPA
2025-04-14
Abstract
The neuropeptide PACAP (Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide) has been extensively studied for its neuroprotective properties in neurodegenerative diseases, including Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Diabetic Retinopathy (DR). Mutations in the gene encoding Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) account for approximately in 20% of familial ALS cases. The pathological mechanisms underlying the toxicity induced by mutated SOD1 are still unknown. However, it has been hypothesized that oxidative stress (OS) has a crucial role in motor neuron degeneration in ALS patients. Moreover, it has been described that SOD1 mutation interferes with the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a protective key modulator against OS and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Using a hybrid motor neuron-like cell line (NSC-34) expressing human SOD1 G93A as an in vitro model of ALS, we investigated whether the protective effect of the PACAP peptide is mediated through ADNP activation. Our results showed that binding of PACAP to its receptor PAC1R prevents mutated motor neurons death under serum-deprived conditions by inducing ADNP expression via phospholipase C (PLC) activation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that PACAP/ADNP axis significantly attenuates ROS generation by promoting the translocation of the transcription factor Nrf2 involved in the antioxidant response. During DR progression, long lasting hyperglycemia induces metabolic changes in the retina, leading to the overexpression and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) from retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) cells, which form the outer blood-retinal barrier (oBRB), a specialized structure that regulates ions and metabolites flux between capillaries of choroid and retina layers. VEGF secretion from the basolateral compartment of RPE cells compromises barrier’s integrity and induces choroidal neovascularization. We hypothesized that PACAP prevents the damage to oBRB and control choroidal neovascularization through the induction of ADNP. Firstly, we demonstrated that ADNP is expressed in RPE cells of Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic animals. The involvement of PACAP-ADNP axis on oBRB integrity was evaluated through the measurement of trans-epithelial-electrical resistance and permeability assay performed on ARPE monolayer cells cultured in a conditioned medium, called CM2, containing known concentration of VEGF and by analyzing the expression of two tight junction forming proteins, Zonula Occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin. Furthermore, we have also demonstrated that PACAP-ADNP axis counteracted choroidal neovascularization promoted by VEGF. In conclusion, the studies presented in this thesis highlight the role of the PACAP-ADNP axis in neuroprotection against oxidative stress in ALS and preservation of the integrity of the external blood-retinal barrier (oBRB) during DR progression. Considering the limitations associated with the clinical application of these peptides, regarding their metabolic instability and short half-life, future studies should prioritize the identification and synthesis of novel agonists with a greater therapeutic efficacy.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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