European Contexts of Socialization into (anti-)Democratic Masculinities

This report focuses on the macro-level factors that can potentially explain adherence to (anti-) democratic gender norms, particularly anti-democratic masculinity, as the result of socialization processes.  It provides an overview of the social, cultural, and legal norms in Europe, useful for understanding how they relate to gender roles. Our framework identifies seven dimensions influencing these processes: (1) socioeconomic structure and inequalities; (2) adherence to European values and attitudes towards Europe; (3) gender norms; (4) gender-based violence and institutional response; (5) political dimension; (6) digitalization and online behaviour; and (7) youth agency. Together, these dimensions capture how structural conditions, political climates, and cultural practices interact to (re)produce either inclusive or exclusionary masculine repertoires defining prevailing cultural norms in the EU27 contexts of socialization. Building on detailed descriptions of country profiles, the report shows how contexts of socialization vary within Europe but also highlights commonalities across national contexts. By mapping support for gender equality and liberal democracy, the report identifies three clusters of countries that suggest different lines of intervention. In contexts marked by hierarchical gender norms, authoritarian preferences, and socioeconomic vulnerabilities such as Hungary, Poland, or Cyprus, measures to reduce economic, educational, territorial, and digital divides, alongside strengthened civic education, are crucial to foster more democratic masculinities. In countries where democratic institutions and egalitarian norms coexist with tensions or slower change, like Italy, Greece, or Slovakia, interventions should focus on reducing internal disparities, bolstering institutional trust, and reinforcing inclusive public discourses to counter polarization. In the most egalitarian and democratic countries, such among which Sweden, the Netherlands, and Germany, the challenge lies in sustaining achievements—ensuring welfare systems, education, and gender-equality infrastructures remain resilient, while preventing backlash or disinformation from undermining progress.By providing both national specificities and broader European patterns, the report offers comparative scholars a framework for explanatory and causal studies, practitioners guidance for culturally and structurally sensitive interventions, and policymakers a theory- and data-driven account of social and political dimensions vital to advancing democratic societies.