Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are the two most widespread neurological disorders and currently represent a major and growing public health challenge, with extreme unmet needs, substantial disease burden and poor therapeutic options. These neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are characterized by many shared key pathological features, including the selective vulnerability of specific brain regions, the accumulation of misfolded proteins and persistent and chronic neuroinflammation. Traditionally, the accumulation of misfolded proteins (amyloid-β and tau in AD, α-synuclein in PD) has been considered the primary cause of degeneration of cognitive and motor functions due to loss of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). However, recent compelling evidence has highlighted the central role of neuroinflammation, which not only supports the progression of neurodegenerative diseases but can also cause the buildup of aggregates at the earliest stages of the disease process. Neuroinflammation is associated with chronic activation of the immune cells resident in the brain, peripheral immune cell trafficking across the blood-brain barrier, and release of various mediators of the inflammatory/immune response, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and TNFSF10. Among these, TNFSF10, substantially expressed in the AD brain, has been shown to modulate both the innate and the adaptive branches of the immune response in AD. These mediators are produced by resident CNS glia (microglia and astrocytes), endothelial cells, and peripherally derived immune cells. In this regard, impaired communication across brain barriers (BBs) between the CNS and peripheral compartments has emerged as a key pathological feature. Indeed, while both AD and PD have been traditionally described as disorders of the CNS, increasing evidence suggests a significant non-CNS dysfunction in their pathogenesis, extended to peripheral organs/systems. This bidirectional interplay is supported not only by the infiltration of circulating immunocytes into the CNS and the activation of peripheral immune responses, but also by the observation that peripheral organs mirror the inflammatory status of the brain. Interestingly, as an extension of the CNS, the retina may reflect neurodegenerative brain pathology, and visual impairments often precede the classical clinical symptoms of such CNS disorders, opening to the investigation of the retina for early diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. With such rationale, the first objective of the project has been to investigate whether neutralizing TNFSF10 with an anti-TNFSF10 monoclonal antibody could orchestrate the immune response in advanced stage of AD. To accomplish this objective, we employed the 3xTg-AD mouse model, which develop both plaques and tangles, as well as autoimmune/inflammatory disease in an age-related manner, resembling human AD pathology. Sub-chronic treatment with the anti-TNFSF10 antibody promoted a switch in microglial and splenic macrophage towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Moreover, the treatment decreased proinflammatory monocytes and regulatory T cells in both the brain and spleen of 3xTg-AD mice, paralleled by a reduction in PD1-expressing T cells. Restraint of the overall immune response was accompanied by dramatically decreased burden of amyloid-β (Aβ) in both organs and phosphorylated-Tau (p-Tau) in the brain. TNFSF10 neutralization restored immune balance in both the CNS and periphery at advanced disease stages, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic target for addressing immune dysregulation when the pathology is already well-established. In the attempt to assess the role of α-synuclein (α-Syn) beyond the brain, the second objective of the study focused on the retinal pathology in a PD rat model induced by intranigral infusion of human α-synuclein oligomers (H-α-SynOs). The retina of rat infused with H-α-SynOs revealed increased phosphorylated-α-Syn (p-α-Syn) and a significant loss of dopaminergic tyrosine hydroxylase TH+ neurons, reflecting the pathology within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Moreover, we observed heightened levels of miR-384-5p, which inversely correlated with its predicted molecular target SIRT1, known to be neuroprotective. Additionally, intranigral infusion of H-αSynOs elicited an inflammatory response within the retina, as evidenced by activation of astrocytes and microglia and enhanced proinflammatory cytokine signaling. These findings emphasize the retina as a valuable peripheral site for monitoring brain neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory processes in PD pathology, reinforcing the concept of the retina as a window into the brain. In this light, unravelling mechanisms underlying neuro-immune dysfunction beyond the brain holds great promise for identifying novel molecular targets for therapeutic intervention and biomarkers for early neurodegeneration prediction.
La malattia di Alzheimer (AD) e la malattia di Parkinson (PD) sono i due disturbi neurologici più diffusi e rappresentano attualmente una grande e crescente sfida per la salute pubblica, caratterizzate da bisogni clinici ancora insoddisfatti e opzioni terapeutiche limitate. Queste malattie neurodegenerative (NDDs) condividono molte caratteristiche patologiche fondamentali, tra cui la vulnerabilità selettiva di specifiche regioni cerebrali, l’accumulo di proteine mal ripiegate e neuroinfiammazione cronica e persistente. Tradizionalmente, l’accumulo di proteine mal ripiegate (amiloide-β e tau nell’AD, α-sinucleina nel PD) è stato considerato la causa principale della degenerazione delle funzioni cognitive e motorie, dovuta alla perdita di neuroni nel sistema nervoso centrale (SNC). Tuttavia, recenti e solide evidenze hanno messo in luce il ruolo centrale della neuroinfiammazione, che non solo sostiene la progressione delle malattie neurodegenerative, ma può anche favorire l’accumulo di aggregati nelle fasi più precoci del processo patologico. La neuroinfiammazione è associata all’attivazione cronica delle cellule immunitarie residenti nel cervello, al traffico di cellule immunitarie periferiche attraverso la barriera ematoencefalica e al rilascio di vari mediatori della risposta infiammatoria/immunitaria, tra cui IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α e TNFSF10. Tra questi, TNFSF10, ampiamente espresso nel cervello dei pazienti con AD, è stato dimostrato modulare sia la risposta immunitaria innata che quella adattativa nell’AD. Questi mediatori sono prodotti dalla glia residente del SNC (microglia e astrociti), dalle cellule endoteliali e dalle cellule immunitarie di origine periferica. In questo contesto, è emersa come caratteristica patologica chiave una comunicazione alterata tra le barriere cerebrali (BBs) e i compartimenti periferici. Infatti, sebbene AD e PD siano tradizionalmente considerate patologie del SNC, crescenti evidenze suggeriscono una disfunzione non cerebrale significativa nella loro patogenesi, estesa a organi e sistemi periferici. Questa interazione bidirezionale è supportata non solo dall’infiltrazione di immunociti circolanti nel SNC e dall’attivazione di risposte immunitarie periferiche, ma anche dall’osservazione che gli organi periferici rispecchiano lo stato infiammatorio del cervello. Interessante è il fatto che, in quanto estensione del SNC, la retina possa riflettere la patologia neurodegenerativa cerebrale, e che i disturbi visivi precedano spesso i sintomi clinici classici di tali disturbi, aprendo così la strada all’uso della retina per la diagnosi precoce e il monitoraggio terapeutico. Con tale razionale, il primo obiettivo del progetto è stato quello di indagare se la neutralizzazione di TNFSF10 mediante un anticorpo monoclonale anti-TNFSF10 potesse modulare la risposta immunitaria nelle fasi avanzate dell’AD. A tale scopo, è stato utilizzato il modello murino 3xTg-AD, che sviluppa sia placche che grovigli neurofibrillari, oltre a un quadro autoimmune/infiammatorio correlato all’età, simile alla patologia umana dell’AD. Il trattamento sub-cronico con l’anticorpo anti-TNFSF10 ha promosso un passaggio del fenotipo microgliale e dei macrofagi splenici verso uno stato anti-infiammatorio. Inoltre, il trattamento ha ridotto i monociti proinfiammatori e le cellule T regolatorie sia nel cervello che nella milza dei topi 3xTg-AD, accompagnato da una diminuzione delle cellule T PD1-positive. Il contenimento della risposta immunitaria complessiva è stato associato a una marcata riduzione del carico di amiloide-β (Aβ) in entrambi gli organi e di tau fosforilata (p-Tau) nel cervello. La neutralizzazione di TNFSF10 ha quindi ripristinato l’equilibrio immunitario nel SNC e in periferia nelle fasi avanzate della malattia, evidenziando il suo potenziale come bersaglio terapeutico per correggere la disregolazione immunitaria in stadi patologici già consolidati. Nel tentativo di valutare il ruolo dell’α-sinucleina (α-Syn) oltre il cervello, il secondo obiettivo dello studio si è concentrato sulla patologia retinica in un modello di ratto per la PD, indotto da infusione intranigrale di oligomeri di α-sinucleina umana (H-α-SynOs). La retina dei ratti infusi con H-α-SynOs ha mostrato un aumento della α-sinucleina fosforilata (p-α-Syn) e una perdita significativa di neuroni dopaminergici TH+, riflettendo la patologia presente nella substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Inoltre, sono stati osservati livelli elevati di miR-384-5p, inversamente correlati con il suo bersaglio molecolare previsto, SIRT1, noto per le sue proprietà neuroprotettive. L’infusione intranigrale di H-α-SynOs ha inoltre indotto una risposta infiammatoria nella retina, evidenziata dall’attivazione di astrociti e microglia e da un aumento del segnale delle citochine proinfiammatorie. Questi risultati sottolineano il valore della retina come sito periferico per il monitoraggio dei processi neurodegenerativi e neuroinfiammatori cerebrali nella PD, rafforzando il concetto della retina come finestra sul cervello. In questa prospettiva, comprendere i meccanismi di disfunzione neuro-immunitaria oltre il cervello rappresenta una grande opportunità per identificare nuovi bersagli molecolari per interventi terapeutici e biomarcatori predittivi di neurodegenerazione precoce.
Meccanismi neuroinfiammatori nel cervello e oltre nei modelli animali della malattia di Alzheimer e della malattia di Parkinson / Cantone, A.F.. - (2026 Feb 18).
Meccanismi neuroinfiammatori nel cervello e oltre nei modelli animali della malattia di Alzheimer e della malattia di Parkinson
CANTONE, ANNA FLAVIA
2026-02-18
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are the two most widespread neurological disorders and currently represent a major and growing public health challenge, with extreme unmet needs, substantial disease burden and poor therapeutic options. These neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are characterized by many shared key pathological features, including the selective vulnerability of specific brain regions, the accumulation of misfolded proteins and persistent and chronic neuroinflammation. Traditionally, the accumulation of misfolded proteins (amyloid-β and tau in AD, α-synuclein in PD) has been considered the primary cause of degeneration of cognitive and motor functions due to loss of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). However, recent compelling evidence has highlighted the central role of neuroinflammation, which not only supports the progression of neurodegenerative diseases but can also cause the buildup of aggregates at the earliest stages of the disease process. Neuroinflammation is associated with chronic activation of the immune cells resident in the brain, peripheral immune cell trafficking across the blood-brain barrier, and release of various mediators of the inflammatory/immune response, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and TNFSF10. Among these, TNFSF10, substantially expressed in the AD brain, has been shown to modulate both the innate and the adaptive branches of the immune response in AD. These mediators are produced by resident CNS glia (microglia and astrocytes), endothelial cells, and peripherally derived immune cells. In this regard, impaired communication across brain barriers (BBs) between the CNS and peripheral compartments has emerged as a key pathological feature. Indeed, while both AD and PD have been traditionally described as disorders of the CNS, increasing evidence suggests a significant non-CNS dysfunction in their pathogenesis, extended to peripheral organs/systems. This bidirectional interplay is supported not only by the infiltration of circulating immunocytes into the CNS and the activation of peripheral immune responses, but also by the observation that peripheral organs mirror the inflammatory status of the brain. Interestingly, as an extension of the CNS, the retina may reflect neurodegenerative brain pathology, and visual impairments often precede the classical clinical symptoms of such CNS disorders, opening to the investigation of the retina for early diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. With such rationale, the first objective of the project has been to investigate whether neutralizing TNFSF10 with an anti-TNFSF10 monoclonal antibody could orchestrate the immune response in advanced stage of AD. To accomplish this objective, we employed the 3xTg-AD mouse model, which develop both plaques and tangles, as well as autoimmune/inflammatory disease in an age-related manner, resembling human AD pathology. Sub-chronic treatment with the anti-TNFSF10 antibody promoted a switch in microglial and splenic macrophage towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Moreover, the treatment decreased proinflammatory monocytes and regulatory T cells in both the brain and spleen of 3xTg-AD mice, paralleled by a reduction in PD1-expressing T cells. Restraint of the overall immune response was accompanied by dramatically decreased burden of amyloid-β (Aβ) in both organs and phosphorylated-Tau (p-Tau) in the brain. TNFSF10 neutralization restored immune balance in both the CNS and periphery at advanced disease stages, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic target for addressing immune dysregulation when the pathology is already well-established. In the attempt to assess the role of α-synuclein (α-Syn) beyond the brain, the second objective of the study focused on the retinal pathology in a PD rat model induced by intranigral infusion of human α-synuclein oligomers (H-α-SynOs). The retina of rat infused with H-α-SynOs revealed increased phosphorylated-α-Syn (p-α-Syn) and a significant loss of dopaminergic tyrosine hydroxylase TH+ neurons, reflecting the pathology within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Moreover, we observed heightened levels of miR-384-5p, which inversely correlated with its predicted molecular target SIRT1, known to be neuroprotective. Additionally, intranigral infusion of H-αSynOs elicited an inflammatory response within the retina, as evidenced by activation of astrocytes and microglia and enhanced proinflammatory cytokine signaling. These findings emphasize the retina as a valuable peripheral site for monitoring brain neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory processes in PD pathology, reinforcing the concept of the retina as a window into the brain. In this light, unravelling mechanisms underlying neuro-immune dysfunction beyond the brain holds great promise for identifying novel molecular targets for therapeutic intervention and biomarkers for early neurodegeneration prediction.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
PhD thesis.pdf
accesso aperto
Tipologia:
Tesi di dottorato
Licenza:
PUBBLICO - Pubblico con Copyright
Dimensione
6.17 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
6.17 MB | Adobe PDF | Visualizza/Apri |
I documenti in IRIS sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.


