Scientific Complexity in Modern Italian Historiography of Geology and Volcanology: The Case of William Hamilton (1730–1803)

William Hamilton’s (1730–1803) contribution to the emergence of modern geology and volcanology represents a significant chapter in the history of Earth sciences between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. A British diplomat and dedicated naturalist, Hamilton served as ambassador to the Kingdom of Naples from 1764 to 1800, a position that afforded him direct access to some of the most active volcanic regions in southern Europe. During his long residence in Naples, he conducted numerous investigations of Mount Vesuvius, the Phlegraean Fields, and Mount Etna, collecting observations, specimens, and documentary evidence that were disseminated through an extensive correspondence with the Royal Society of London. By adopting an empirical approach grounded in direct observation and the systematic recording of eruptive phenomena, Hamilton made a substantial contribution to the development of new scientific practices for the study of volcanoes. This article examines the role played by the Scottish scholar in the institutionalization of the Earth sciences, highlighting how his research anticipated key methodological principles of modern volcanology and fostered the international circulation of geological knowledge during the Enlightenment.