Cold-formed Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) are widely used as columns in steel moment-resisting frames due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, similar lateral stiffness along orthogonal directions, and large torsional stiffness. The growing interest in these members is reflected by numerous experimental and numerical studies aimed at: (i) characterising the stress–strain response of coupons extracted from cold-formed members; (ii) quantifying residual stresses induced by the manufacturing process; (iii) investigating the cyclic response of HSS columns under combined axial load and bending; (iv) reproducing their response through refined finite element (FE) models and assessing rotation capacity; and (v) developing simplified modelling approaches suitable for nonlinear assessment of structural systems incorporating HSS members. Due to the manufacturing process, especially in the case of the indirect forming method for all sections and the direct method for rather narrow profiles, coupons extracted from cold-formed members are characterized by a stress-strain response with no sharply defined yield point. The cold-forming process also leads to an increase of the yield strength of steel (determined as the value corresponding to 0.2% strain offset) and to a reduction of its ductility in specimens extracted from the corner parts and the longitudinal weld of the sections. In parallel, residual stresses represent another key feature of cold-formed HSS: bending residual stresses provide the dominant contribution, while membrane stresses are generally close to zero; tensile residual stresses develop on the outer surface and compressive residual stresses on the inner surface, with larger magnitudes typically observed toward the middle of the plates. These characteristics influence local buckling, post-buckling degradation, and ultimately the deformation capacity of members under seismic-type loading. A large number of laboratory testing has explored the cyclic response of HSS columns made of different steel grades and subjected to axial load ratios typically ranging from 0.0 to 0.4. The results consistently highlight the key influence of local slenderness and axial load level on deformation capacity. Symmetric loading protocol was used in almost all these laboratory tests. Asymmetric (collapse-consistent) loading protocols were used in some tests conducted by Suzuki and Lignos, which underlined that the chord rotation capacity of members subjected to collapse-consistent loading protocols is up to two-to-three times larger than that of the same members subjected to a standard symmetric cyclic loading protocol. Refined numerical models have been developed to replicate these behaviours and to extract design-oriented metrics. Detailed FE approaches based on shell or solid elements can represent instability modes with high fidelity, but become computationally demanding when extended to large parametric studies or structural analyses. For this reason, several alternative modelling strategies have been proposed over the last decades to incorporate damage-related effects in computationally efficient frameworks. These strategies typically introduce: (i) effective section property reductions, (ii) constitutive models with distinct tensile and compressive behaviour to reproduce post-buckling response, or (iii) concentrated plasticity formulations using zero-length rotational springs with cyclic stiffness and strength deterioration at member ends. While these approaches can capture degradation, their calibration is currently mainly limited to I-shaped cross sections. Therefore, their calibration for cold-formed HSS and their extension to the combined effects of axial force and bending moment may require dedicated developments. Despite the significant progress, most research and design-oriented proposals remain primarily focused on members subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending. In contrast, HSS columns in three-dimensional moment-resisting frames are typically subjected to biaxial bending, especially under seismic actions. Experimental evidence on biaxial response remains limited, and numerical investigations have highlighted that the biaxial loading path may affect strength deterioration and axial shortening compared to uniaxial bending. However, consolidated proposals to estimate the rotation capacity of cold-formed HSS columns under biaxial bending and to model their cyclic response are still lacking. This gap motivates the research presented in this thesis, which aims to develop and validate modelling strategies capable of capturing local instability effects and degradation, and to provide design-oriented capacity measures under both uniaxial and biaxial bending conditions. The thesis is organised into five chapters, which progressively move from literature background and benchmark modelling to original numerical developments and simplified modelling tools. Chapter 1 provides the state of the art on cold-formed steel box sections used as structural components, focusing on material properties, residual stresses, experimental evidence, and numerical strategies available in the literature. Chapter 2 presents the refined finite element model adopted in the thesis. More specifically, the chapter summarises the modelling approach previously proposed by Bosco et al. and its validation for uniaxial bending, and then reports the original contributions of this thesis, namely the extension and validation of the model against stub-column tests and cantilever-column tests under combined axial load and biaxial bending. Chapter 3 builds on this validated finite element model to carry out an original parametric numerical investigation on HSS columns under uniaxial and biaxial bending, considering different axial load ratios, cross-section geometries, and cantilever lengths. The results are synthesised into chord-rotation capacity domains for the Significant Damage and Near Collapse limit states, consistently with the performance-based philosophy of the second generation of Eurocode 8. Based on the evidence gathered in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 develops an original simplified OpenSees modelling strategy for uniaxial bending, based on concentrated plasticity and a zero-length rotational spring, together with calibration relationships for the model parameters. Chapter 5 further extends this research by proposing an original fibre-based OpenSees model for combined axial load and biaxial bending, employing a modified SteelRebar formulation to reproduce the strip-dependent response of box sections.
I profili cavi strutturali formati a freddo (cold-formed Hollow Structural Sections, HSS) sono ampiamente utilizzati come colonne nei telai in acciaio resistenti a momento grazie all’elevato rapporto resistenza/peso, alla rigidezza laterale simile lungo direzioni ortogonali e all’elevata rigidezza torsionale. Il crescente interesse verso questi elementi è testimoniato da numerosi studi sperimentali e numerici finalizzati a: (i) caratterizzare la risposta tensione–deformazione di provini estratti da elementi formati a freddo; (ii) quantificare le tensioni residue indotte dal processo produttivo; (iii) indagare la risposta ciclica di colonne HSS soggette a sforzo normale e flessione; (iv) riprodurne la risposta mediante modelli raffinati agli elementi finiti (FE) e valutarne la capacità rotazionale; e (v) sviluppare approcci di modellazione semplificati adatti alla valutazione non lineare di sistemi strutturali che includono elementi HSS. A causa del processo produttivo, in particolare nel caso del metodo di formatura indiretto per tutte le sezioni e del metodo diretto per profili piuttosto stretti, i provini estratti da elementi formati a freddo sono caratterizzati da una risposta tensione–deformazione priva di un punto di snervamento nettamente definito. Il processo di formatura a freddo determina inoltre un incremento della tensione di snervamento dell’acciaio, valutata come il valore corrispondente allo scostamento dello 0.2% della deformazione, e una riduzione della duttilità nei provini estratti dalle parti di raccordo e dalla saldatura longitudinale delle sezioni. Parallelamente, le tensioni residue rappresentano un’altra caratteristica fondamentale degli HSS formati a freddo: le tensioni residue flessionali forniscono il contributo dominante, mentre le tensioni di membrana sono generalmente prossime a zero; tensioni residue di trazione si sviluppano sulla superficie esterna e tensioni residue di compressione sulla superficie interna, con intensità maggiori tipicamente osservate verso la mezzeria delle piastre. Tali caratteristiche influenzano l’instabilità locale, il degrado post-instabilità e, in ultima analisi, la capacità deformativa degli elementi sottoposti a carichi di tipo sismico. Un elevato numero di prove di laboratorio ha indagato la risposta ciclica di colonne HSS realizzate con diversi gradi di acciaio e soggette a rapporti di sforzo normale generalmente compresi tra 0.0 e 0.4. I risultati evidenziano in modo ricorrente l’influenza fondamentale della snellezza locale e del livello di sforzo normale sulla capacità deformativa. Nella quasi totalità di queste prove di laboratorio sono stati utilizzati protocolli di carico simmetrici. Protocolli di carico asimmetrici, coerenti con il collasso, sono stati invece utilizzati in alcune prove condotte da Suzuki e Lignos, le quali hanno evidenziato che la capacità di rotazione alla corda degli elementi soggetti a protocolli coerenti con il collasso può essere fino a due-tre volte maggiore rispetto a quella degli stessi elementi sottoposti a un protocollo ciclico simmetrico standard. Modelli numerici raffinati sono stati sviluppati per riprodurre tali comportamenti ed estrarre grandezze utili alla progettazione. Approcci FE dettagliati basati su elementi shell o solidi consentono di rappresentare i modi di instabilità con elevata accuratezza, ma diventano computazionalmente onerosi quando estesi a studi parametrici di grandi dimensioni o ad analisi strutturali. Per questo motivo, negli ultimi decenni sono state proposte diverse strategie di modellazione alternative per incorporare gli effetti legati al danneggiamento in schemi computazionalmente efficienti. Tali strategie introducono generalmente: (i) riduzioni efficaci delle proprietà di sezione; (ii) modelli costitutivi con comportamento differenziato in trazione e compressione per riprodurre la risposta post-instabilità; oppure (iii) formulazioni a plasticità concentrata mediante molle rotazionali di lunghezza nulla poste alle estremità degli elementi, con degrado ciclico di rigidezza e resistenza. Sebbene questi approcci siano in grado di cogliere il degrado, la loro calibrazione è attualmente limitata principalmente a sezioni a I. Pertanto, la loro calibrazione per HSS formati a freddo e la loro estensione agli effetti combinati di sforzo normale e momento flettente richiedono sviluppi specifici. Nonostante i progressi significativi, la maggior parte degli studi e delle proposte orientate alla progettazione resta principalmente focalizzata su elementi soggetti a sforzo normale e flessione uniassiale. Al contrario, le colonne HSS inserite in telai tridimensionali resistenti a momento sono generalmente soggette a flessione biassiale, specialmente sotto azioni sismiche. Le evidenze sperimentali sulla risposta biassiale sono ancora limitate e le indagini numeriche hanno mostrato che il percorso di carico biassiale può influenzare il degrado di resistenza e l’accorciamento assiale rispetto alla flessione uniassiale. Tuttavia, mancano ancora proposte consolidate per stimare la capacità rotazionale di colonne HSS formate a freddo soggette a flessione biassiale e per modellarne la risposta ciclica. Questa lacuna motiva la ricerca presentata in questa tesi, che mira a sviluppare e validare strategie di modellazione capaci di cogliere gli effetti dell’instabilità locale e del degrado, e a fornire misure di capacità orientate alla progettazione per condizioni di flessione sia uniassiale sia biassiale. La tesi è organizzata in cinque capitoli, che procedono progressivamente dall’inquadramento bibliografico e dalla modellazione di riferimento fino allo sviluppo numerico originale e agli strumenti di modellazione semplificata. Il Capitolo 1 fornisce lo stato dell’arte sulle sezioni scatolari in acciaio formate a freddo utilizzate come componenti strutturali, concentrandosi sulle proprietà del materiale, sulle tensioni residue, sulle evidenze sperimentali e sulle strategie numeriche disponibili in letteratura. Il Capitolo 2 presenta il modello raffinato agli elementi finiti adottato nella tesi. Più nello specifico, il capitolo riassume l’approccio di modellazione precedentemente proposto da Bosco et al. e la relativa validazione per la flessione uniassiale, per poi riportare i contributi originali di questa tesi, ovvero l’estensione e la validazione del modello rispetto a prove su stub-column e prove su colonne a mensola soggette a sforzo normale e flessione biassiale. Il Capitolo 3 utilizza tale modello agli elementi finiti validato per condurre un’indagine numerica parametrica originale su colonne HSS soggette a flessione uniassiale e biassiale, considerando diversi rapporti di sforzo normale, geometrie di sezione e lunghezze di mensola. I risultati sono sintetizzati in domini di capacità di rotazione alla corda per gli stati limite di Significant Damage e Near Collapse, coerentemente con la filosofia prestazionale della seconda generazione dell’Eurocodice 8. Sulla base delle evidenze raccolte nel Capitolo 3, il Capitolo 4 sviluppa una strategia originale di modellazione semplificata in OpenSees per la flessione uniassiale, basata sulla plasticità concentrata e su una molla rotazionale di lunghezza nulla, insieme a relazioni di calibrazione per i parametri del modello. Il Capitolo 5 estende ulteriormente questa ricerca proponendo un modello originale a fibre in OpenSees per elementi soggetti a sforzo normale e flessione biassiale, impiegando una formulazione modificata del materiale SteelRebar per riprodurre la risposta dipendente dalla posizione delle strisce nelle sezioni scatolari.
Cyclic behaviour and numerical modelling of cold-formed hollow structural sections [Comportamento ciclico e modellazione numerica di sezioni cave strutturali formate a freddo] / Caragliano, M.. - (2026 Jun 25).
Cyclic behaviour and numerical modelling of cold-formed hollow structural sections [Comportamento ciclico e modellazione numerica di sezioni cave strutturali formate a freddo]
CARAGLIANO, MARCO
2026-06-25
Abstract
Cold-formed Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) are widely used as columns in steel moment-resisting frames due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, similar lateral stiffness along orthogonal directions, and large torsional stiffness. The growing interest in these members is reflected by numerous experimental and numerical studies aimed at: (i) characterising the stress–strain response of coupons extracted from cold-formed members; (ii) quantifying residual stresses induced by the manufacturing process; (iii) investigating the cyclic response of HSS columns under combined axial load and bending; (iv) reproducing their response through refined finite element (FE) models and assessing rotation capacity; and (v) developing simplified modelling approaches suitable for nonlinear assessment of structural systems incorporating HSS members. Due to the manufacturing process, especially in the case of the indirect forming method for all sections and the direct method for rather narrow profiles, coupons extracted from cold-formed members are characterized by a stress-strain response with no sharply defined yield point. The cold-forming process also leads to an increase of the yield strength of steel (determined as the value corresponding to 0.2% strain offset) and to a reduction of its ductility in specimens extracted from the corner parts and the longitudinal weld of the sections. In parallel, residual stresses represent another key feature of cold-formed HSS: bending residual stresses provide the dominant contribution, while membrane stresses are generally close to zero; tensile residual stresses develop on the outer surface and compressive residual stresses on the inner surface, with larger magnitudes typically observed toward the middle of the plates. These characteristics influence local buckling, post-buckling degradation, and ultimately the deformation capacity of members under seismic-type loading. A large number of laboratory testing has explored the cyclic response of HSS columns made of different steel grades and subjected to axial load ratios typically ranging from 0.0 to 0.4. The results consistently highlight the key influence of local slenderness and axial load level on deformation capacity. Symmetric loading protocol was used in almost all these laboratory tests. Asymmetric (collapse-consistent) loading protocols were used in some tests conducted by Suzuki and Lignos, which underlined that the chord rotation capacity of members subjected to collapse-consistent loading protocols is up to two-to-three times larger than that of the same members subjected to a standard symmetric cyclic loading protocol. Refined numerical models have been developed to replicate these behaviours and to extract design-oriented metrics. Detailed FE approaches based on shell or solid elements can represent instability modes with high fidelity, but become computationally demanding when extended to large parametric studies or structural analyses. For this reason, several alternative modelling strategies have been proposed over the last decades to incorporate damage-related effects in computationally efficient frameworks. These strategies typically introduce: (i) effective section property reductions, (ii) constitutive models with distinct tensile and compressive behaviour to reproduce post-buckling response, or (iii) concentrated plasticity formulations using zero-length rotational springs with cyclic stiffness and strength deterioration at member ends. While these approaches can capture degradation, their calibration is currently mainly limited to I-shaped cross sections. Therefore, their calibration for cold-formed HSS and their extension to the combined effects of axial force and bending moment may require dedicated developments. Despite the significant progress, most research and design-oriented proposals remain primarily focused on members subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending. In contrast, HSS columns in three-dimensional moment-resisting frames are typically subjected to biaxial bending, especially under seismic actions. Experimental evidence on biaxial response remains limited, and numerical investigations have highlighted that the biaxial loading path may affect strength deterioration and axial shortening compared to uniaxial bending. However, consolidated proposals to estimate the rotation capacity of cold-formed HSS columns under biaxial bending and to model their cyclic response are still lacking. This gap motivates the research presented in this thesis, which aims to develop and validate modelling strategies capable of capturing local instability effects and degradation, and to provide design-oriented capacity measures under both uniaxial and biaxial bending conditions. The thesis is organised into five chapters, which progressively move from literature background and benchmark modelling to original numerical developments and simplified modelling tools. Chapter 1 provides the state of the art on cold-formed steel box sections used as structural components, focusing on material properties, residual stresses, experimental evidence, and numerical strategies available in the literature. Chapter 2 presents the refined finite element model adopted in the thesis. More specifically, the chapter summarises the modelling approach previously proposed by Bosco et al. and its validation for uniaxial bending, and then reports the original contributions of this thesis, namely the extension and validation of the model against stub-column tests and cantilever-column tests under combined axial load and biaxial bending. Chapter 3 builds on this validated finite element model to carry out an original parametric numerical investigation on HSS columns under uniaxial and biaxial bending, considering different axial load ratios, cross-section geometries, and cantilever lengths. The results are synthesised into chord-rotation capacity domains for the Significant Damage and Near Collapse limit states, consistently with the performance-based philosophy of the second generation of Eurocode 8. Based on the evidence gathered in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 develops an original simplified OpenSees modelling strategy for uniaxial bending, based on concentrated plasticity and a zero-length rotational spring, together with calibration relationships for the model parameters. Chapter 5 further extends this research by proposing an original fibre-based OpenSees model for combined axial load and biaxial bending, employing a modified SteelRebar formulation to reproduce the strip-dependent response of box sections.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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