Trifluoroacetic Acid: A Narrative Review on Physico-Chemical Properties, Exposure Pathways, and Toxicological Concerns.

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) is a persistent degradation product of widely used fluorinated compounds such as hydrofluorocarbons, hydrofluoroolefins, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrochlorofluoroolefins. Its chemical stability, water solubility, and environmental persistence raise concerns about potential human and ecological risks. To provide an overview of current knowledge on TFA, we conducted a literature search (PubMed and Scopus, December 2024–January 2025) focusing on its environmental fate, human exposure, toxicokinetic, ecotoxicology, and regulation. A narrative approach was applied, prioritizing recent and high-quality evidence. TFA is ubiquitous in air, water, food, and consumer products. Human exposure occurs mainly through ingestion and inhalation. It is rapidly absorbed and excreted mostly unchanged in urine, with limited metabolic transformation. Though not bioaccumulated in fat, its environmental persistence and ongoing exposure raise concerns about long-term systemic effects. Ecotoxicological data show chronic toxicity in aquatic and terrestrial species, with environmental concentrations often exceeding safety thresholds. Currently, no binding EU limit exists for TFA, although several countries have proposed drinking water guidelines. TFA represents an emerging environmental contaminant with potential human health and ecological impacts. Strengthened monitoring, long-term toxicological studies, and precautionary regulatory action are urgently needed.